Contract Storage

The contract’s storage is a persistent storage space where you can read, write, modify, and persist data. The storage is a map with \(2^{251}\) slots, where each slot is a felt252 initialized to 0.

Each storage slot is identified by a felt252 value, called the storage address, which is computed from the variable's name and parameters that depend on the variable's type, outlined in the "Addresses of Storage Variables" section.

We can interact with the contract's storage in two ways:

1. Through high-level storage variables, which are declared in a special Storage struct annotated with the #[storage] attribute.
2. Directly accessing storage slots using their computed address and the low-level storage_read and storage_write syscalls. This is useful when you need to perform custom storage operations that don't fit well with the structured approach of storage variables, but should generally be avoided; as such, we will not cover them in this chapter.

Declaring and Using Storage Variables

Storage variables in Starknet contracts are stored in a special struct called Storage:

#[starknet::interface]
pub trait ISimpleStorage<TContractState> {
    fn get_owner(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Person;
    fn get_owner_name(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_expiration(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Expiration;
    fn change_expiration(ref self: TContractState, expiration: SimpleStorage::Expiration);
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod SimpleStorage {
    use core::starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        owner: Person,
        expiration: Expiration
    }

    #[derive(Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct Person {
        address: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub enum Expiration {
        Finite: u64,
        #[default]
        Infinite
    }

    #[constructor]
    fn constructor(ref self: ContractState, owner: Person) {
        self.owner.write(owner);
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl SimpleCounterImpl of super::ISimpleStorage<ContractState> {
        fn get_owner(self: @ContractState) -> Person {
            self.owner.read()
        }

        fn get_owner_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.owner.name.read()
        }

        fn get_expiration(self: @ContractState) -> Expiration {
            self.expiration.read()
        }

        fn change_expiration(ref self: ContractState, expiration: Expiration) {
            if get_caller_address() != self.owner.address.read() {
                panic!("Only the owner can change the expiration");
            }
            self.expiration.write(expiration);
        }
    }

    fn get_owner_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.__base_address__
    }

    fn get_owner_name_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.name.__storage_pointer_address__.into()
    }

}

The Storage struct is a struct like any other, except that it must be annotated with the #[storage] attribute. This annotation tells the compiler to generate the required code to interact with the blockchain state, and allows you to read and write data from and to storage. This struct can contain any type that implements the Store trait, including other structs, enums, as well as Storage Mappings, Storage Vectors, and Storage Nodes. In this section, we'll focus on simple storage variables, and we'll see how to store more complex types in the next sections.

Accessing Storage Variables

Variables stored in the Storage struct can be accessed and modified using the read and write functions, respectively. All these functions are automatically generated by the compiler for each storage variable.

To read the value of the owner storage variable, which is of type Person, we call the read function on the owner variable, passing in no arguments.

#[starknet::interface]
pub trait ISimpleStorage<TContractState> {
    fn get_owner(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Person;
    fn get_owner_name(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_expiration(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Expiration;
    fn change_expiration(ref self: TContractState, expiration: SimpleStorage::Expiration);
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod SimpleStorage {
    use core::starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        owner: Person,
        expiration: Expiration
    }

    #[derive(Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct Person {
        address: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub enum Expiration {
        Finite: u64,
        #[default]
        Infinite
    }

    #[constructor]
    fn constructor(ref self: ContractState, owner: Person) {
        self.owner.write(owner);
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl SimpleCounterImpl of super::ISimpleStorage<ContractState> {
        fn get_owner(self: @ContractState) -> Person {
            self.owner.read()
        }

        fn get_owner_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.owner.name.read()
        }

        fn get_expiration(self: @ContractState) -> Expiration {
            self.expiration.read()
        }

        fn change_expiration(ref self: ContractState, expiration: Expiration) {
            if get_caller_address() != self.owner.address.read() {
                panic!("Only the owner can change the expiration");
            }
            self.expiration.write(expiration);
        }
    }

    fn get_owner_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.__base_address__
    }

    fn get_owner_name_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.name.__storage_pointer_address__.into()
    }

}

To write a new value to the storage slot of a storage variable, we call the write function, passing in the value as argument. Here, we only pass in the value to write to the owner variable as it is a simple variable.

#[starknet::interface]
pub trait ISimpleStorage<TContractState> {
    fn get_owner(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Person;
    fn get_owner_name(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_expiration(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Expiration;
    fn change_expiration(ref self: TContractState, expiration: SimpleStorage::Expiration);
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod SimpleStorage {
    use core::starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        owner: Person,
        expiration: Expiration
    }

    #[derive(Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct Person {
        address: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub enum Expiration {
        Finite: u64,
        #[default]
        Infinite
    }

    #[constructor]
    fn constructor(ref self: ContractState, owner: Person) {
        self.owner.write(owner);
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl SimpleCounterImpl of super::ISimpleStorage<ContractState> {
        fn get_owner(self: @ContractState) -> Person {
            self.owner.read()
        }

        fn get_owner_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.owner.name.read()
        }

        fn get_expiration(self: @ContractState) -> Expiration {
            self.expiration.read()
        }

        fn change_expiration(ref self: ContractState, expiration: Expiration) {
            if get_caller_address() != self.owner.address.read() {
                panic!("Only the owner can change the expiration");
            }
            self.expiration.write(expiration);
        }
    }

    fn get_owner_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.__base_address__
    }

    fn get_owner_name_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.name.__storage_pointer_address__.into()
    }

}

When working with compound types, instead of calling read and write on the struct variable itself, which would perform a storage operation for each member, you can call read and write on specific members of the struct. This allows you to access and modify the values of the struct members directly, minimizing the amount of storage operations performed. In the following example, the owner variable is of type Person. Thus, it has one attribute called name, on which we can call the read and write functions to access and modify its value.

#[starknet::interface]
pub trait ISimpleStorage<TContractState> {
    fn get_owner(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Person;
    fn get_owner_name(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_expiration(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Expiration;
    fn change_expiration(ref self: TContractState, expiration: SimpleStorage::Expiration);
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod SimpleStorage {
    use core::starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        owner: Person,
        expiration: Expiration
    }

    #[derive(Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct Person {
        address: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub enum Expiration {
        Finite: u64,
        #[default]
        Infinite
    }

    #[constructor]
    fn constructor(ref self: ContractState, owner: Person) {
        self.owner.write(owner);
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl SimpleCounterImpl of super::ISimpleStorage<ContractState> {
        fn get_owner(self: @ContractState) -> Person {
            self.owner.read()
        }

        fn get_owner_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.owner.name.read()
        }

        fn get_expiration(self: @ContractState) -> Expiration {
            self.expiration.read()
        }

        fn change_expiration(ref self: ContractState, expiration: Expiration) {
            if get_caller_address() != self.owner.address.read() {
                panic!("Only the owner can change the expiration");
            }
            self.expiration.write(expiration);
        }
    }

    fn get_owner_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.__base_address__
    }

    fn get_owner_name_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.name.__storage_pointer_address__.into()
    }

}

Storing Custom Types with the Store Trait

The Store trait, defined in the starknet::storage_access module, is used to specify how a type should be stored in storage. In order for a type to be stored in storage, it must implement the Store trait. Most types from the core library, such as unsigned integers (u8, u128, u256...), felt252, bool, ByteArray, ContractAddress, etc. implement the Store trait and can thus be stored without further action. However, memory collections, such as Array<T> and Felt252Dict<T>, cannot be stored in contract storage - you will have to use the special types Vec<T> and Map<K, V> instead.

But what if you wanted to store a type that you defined yourself, such as an enum or a struct? In that case, you have to explicitly tell the compiler how to store this type.

In our example, we want to store a Person struct in storage, which is only possible by implementing the Store trait for the Person type. This can be simply achieved by adding a #[derive(starknet::Store)] attribute on top of our struct definition. Note that all the members of the struct need to implement the Store trait for the trait to be derived.

#[starknet::interface]
pub trait ISimpleStorage<TContractState> {
    fn get_owner(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Person;
    fn get_owner_name(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_expiration(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Expiration;
    fn change_expiration(ref self: TContractState, expiration: SimpleStorage::Expiration);
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod SimpleStorage {
    use core::starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        owner: Person,
        expiration: Expiration
    }

    #[derive(Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct Person {
        address: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub enum Expiration {
        Finite: u64,
        #[default]
        Infinite
    }

    #[constructor]
    fn constructor(ref self: ContractState, owner: Person) {
        self.owner.write(owner);
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl SimpleCounterImpl of super::ISimpleStorage<ContractState> {
        fn get_owner(self: @ContractState) -> Person {
            self.owner.read()
        }

        fn get_owner_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.owner.name.read()
        }

        fn get_expiration(self: @ContractState) -> Expiration {
            self.expiration.read()
        }

        fn change_expiration(ref self: ContractState, expiration: Expiration) {
            if get_caller_address() != self.owner.address.read() {
                panic!("Only the owner can change the expiration");
            }
            self.expiration.write(expiration);
        }
    }

    fn get_owner_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.__base_address__
    }

    fn get_owner_name_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.name.__storage_pointer_address__.into()
    }

}

Similarly, Enums can only be written to storage if they implement the Store trait, which can be trivially derived as long as all associated types implement the Store trait.

Enums used in contract storage must define a default variant. This default variant is returned when reading an empty storage slot - otherwise, it will result in a runtime error.

Here's an example of how to properly define an enum for use in contract storage:

#[starknet::interface]
pub trait ISimpleStorage<TContractState> {
    fn get_owner(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Person;
    fn get_owner_name(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_expiration(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Expiration;
    fn change_expiration(ref self: TContractState, expiration: SimpleStorage::Expiration);
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod SimpleStorage {
    use core::starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        owner: Person,
        expiration: Expiration
    }

    #[derive(Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct Person {
        address: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub enum Expiration {
        Finite: u64,
        #[default]
        Infinite
    }

    #[constructor]
    fn constructor(ref self: ContractState, owner: Person) {
        self.owner.write(owner);
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl SimpleCounterImpl of super::ISimpleStorage<ContractState> {
        fn get_owner(self: @ContractState) -> Person {
            self.owner.read()
        }

        fn get_owner_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.owner.name.read()
        }

        fn get_expiration(self: @ContractState) -> Expiration {
            self.expiration.read()
        }

        fn change_expiration(ref self: ContractState, expiration: Expiration) {
            if get_caller_address() != self.owner.address.read() {
                panic!("Only the owner can change the expiration");
            }
            self.expiration.write(expiration);
        }
    }

    fn get_owner_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.__base_address__
    }

    fn get_owner_name_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.name.__storage_pointer_address__.into()
    }

}

In this example, we've added the #[default] attribute to the Infinite variant. This tells the Cairo compiler that if we try to read an uninitialized enum from storage, the Infinite variant should be returned.

You might have noticed that we also derived Drop and Serde on our custom types. Both of them are required for properly serializing arguments passed to entrypoints and deserializing their outputs.

Structs Storage Layout

On Starknet, structs are stored in storage as a sequence of primitive types. The elements of the struct are stored in the same order as they are defined in the struct definition. The first element of the struct is stored at the base address of the struct, which is computed as specified in the "Addresses of Storage Variables" section and can be obtained with var.__base_address__. Subsequent elements are stored at addresses contiguous to the previous element. For example, the storage layout for the owner variable of type Person will result in the following layout:

Note that tuples are similarly stored in contract's storage, with the first element of the tuple being stored at the base address, and subsequent elements stored contiguously.

Enums Storage Layout

When you store an enum variant, what you're essentially storing is the variant's index and eventual associated values. This index starts at 0 for the first variant of your enum and increments by 1 for each subsequent variant. If your variant has an associated value, this value is stored starting from the address immediately following the address of the index of the variant. For example, suppose we have the Expiration enum with the Finite variant that carries an associated limit date, and the Infinite variant without associated data. The storage layout for the Finite variant would look like this:

while the storage layout for the Infinite variant would be as follows:

Storage Nodes

A storage node is a special kind of struct that can contain storage-specific types, such as Map, Vec, or other storage nodes, as members. Unlike regular structs, storage nodes can only exist within contract storage and cannot be instantiated or used outside of it. You can think of storage nodes as intermediate nodes involved in address calculations within the tree representing the contract's storage space. In the next subsection, we will introduce how this concept is modeled in the core library.

The main benefits of storage nodes is that they allow you to create more sophisticated storage layouts, including mappings or vectors inside custom types, and allow you to logically group related data, improving code readability and maintainability.

Storage nodes are structs defined with the #[starknet::storage_node] attribute. In this new contract that implements a voting system, we implement a ProposalNode storage node containing a Map<ContractAddress, bool> to keep track of the voters of the proposal, along with other fields to store the proposal's metadata.

#[starknet::contract]
mod VotingSystem {
    use starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{
        Map, StoragePathEntry, StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess
    };

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        proposals: Map<u32, ProposalNode>,
        proposal_count: u32,
    }

    #[starknet::storage_node]
    struct ProposalNode {
        title: felt252,
        description: felt252,
        yes_votes: u32,
        no_votes: u32,
        voters: Map<ContractAddress, bool>,
    }

    #[external(v0)]
    fn create_proposal(ref self: ContractState, title: felt252, description: felt252) -> u32 {
        let mut proposal_count = self.proposal_count.read();
        let new_proposal_id = proposal_count + 1;

        let mut proposal = self.proposals.entry(new_proposal_id);
        proposal.title.write(title);
        proposal.description.write(description);
        proposal.yes_votes.write(0);
        proposal.no_votes.write(0);

        self.proposal_count.write(new_proposal_id);

        new_proposal_id
    }

    #[external(v0)]
    fn vote(ref self: ContractState, proposal_id: u32, vote: bool) {
        let mut proposal = self.proposals.entry(proposal_id);
        let caller = get_caller_address();
        let has_voted = proposal.voters.entry(caller).read();
        if has_voted {
            return;
        }
        proposal.voters.entry(caller).write(true);
    }
}

When accessing a storage node, you can't read or write it directly. Instead, you have to access its individual members. Here's an example from our VotingSystem contract that demonstrates how we populate each field of the ProposalNode storage node:

#[starknet::contract]
mod VotingSystem {
    use starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{
        Map, StoragePathEntry, StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess
    };

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        proposals: Map<u32, ProposalNode>,
        proposal_count: u32,
    }

    #[starknet::storage_node]
    struct ProposalNode {
        title: felt252,
        description: felt252,
        yes_votes: u32,
        no_votes: u32,
        voters: Map<ContractAddress, bool>,
    }

    #[external(v0)]
    fn create_proposal(ref self: ContractState, title: felt252, description: felt252) -> u32 {
        let mut proposal_count = self.proposal_count.read();
        let new_proposal_id = proposal_count + 1;

        let mut proposal = self.proposals.entry(new_proposal_id);
        proposal.title.write(title);
        proposal.description.write(description);
        proposal.yes_votes.write(0);
        proposal.no_votes.write(0);

        self.proposal_count.write(new_proposal_id);

        new_proposal_id
    }

    #[external(v0)]
    fn vote(ref self: ContractState, proposal_id: u32, vote: bool) {
        let mut proposal = self.proposals.entry(proposal_id);
        let caller = get_caller_address();
        let has_voted = proposal.voters.entry(caller).read();
        if has_voted {
            return;
        }
        proposal.voters.entry(caller).write(true);
    }
}

Because no voter has voted on this proposal yet, we don't need to populate the voters map when creating the proposal. But we could very well access the voters map to check if a given address has already voted on this proposal when it tries to cast its vote:

#[starknet::contract]
mod VotingSystem {
    use starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{
        Map, StoragePathEntry, StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess
    };

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        proposals: Map<u32, ProposalNode>,
        proposal_count: u32,
    }

    #[starknet::storage_node]
    struct ProposalNode {
        title: felt252,
        description: felt252,
        yes_votes: u32,
        no_votes: u32,
        voters: Map<ContractAddress, bool>,
    }

    #[external(v0)]
    fn create_proposal(ref self: ContractState, title: felt252, description: felt252) -> u32 {
        let mut proposal_count = self.proposal_count.read();
        let new_proposal_id = proposal_count + 1;

        let mut proposal = self.proposals.entry(new_proposal_id);
        proposal.title.write(title);
        proposal.description.write(description);
        proposal.yes_votes.write(0);
        proposal.no_votes.write(0);

        self.proposal_count.write(new_proposal_id);

        new_proposal_id
    }

    #[external(v0)]
    fn vote(ref self: ContractState, proposal_id: u32, vote: bool) {
        let mut proposal = self.proposals.entry(proposal_id);
        let caller = get_caller_address();
        let has_voted = proposal.voters.entry(caller).read();
        if has_voted {
            return;
        }
        proposal.voters.entry(caller).write(true);
    }
}

In this example, we access the ProposalNode for a specific proposal ID. We then check if the caller has already voted by reading from the voters map within the storage node. If they haven't voted yet, we write to the voters map to mark that they have now voted.

Addresses of Storage Variables

The address of a storage variable is computed as follows:

• If the variable is a single value, the address is the sn_keccak hash of the ASCII encoding of the variable's name. sn_keccak is Starknet's version of the Keccak256 hash function, whose output is truncated to 250 bits.

• If the variable is composed of multiple values (i.e., a tuple, a struct or an enum), we also use the sn_keccak hash of the ASCII encoding of the variable's name to determine the base address in storage. Then, depending on the type, the storage layout will differ. See the "Storing Custom Types" section.

• If the variable is part of a storage node, its address is based on a chain of hashes that reflects the structure of the node. For a storage node member m within a storage variable variable_name, the path to that member is computed as h(sn_keccak(variable_name), sn_keccak(m)), where h is the Pedersen hash. This process continues for nested storage nodes, building a chain of hashes that represents the path to a leaf node. Once a leaf node is reached, the storage calculation proceeds as it normally would for that type of variable.

• If the variable is a Map or a Vec, the address is computed relative to the storage base address, which is the sn_keccak hash of the variable's name, and the keys of the mapping or indexes in the Vec. The exact computation is described in the "Storage Mappings" and "Storage Vecs" sections.

You can access the base address of a storage variable by accessing the __base_address__ attribute on the variable, which returns a felt252 value.

use core::starknet::ContractAddress;

#[starknet::interface]
pub trait INameRegistry<TContractState> {
    fn store_name(
        ref self: TContractState, name: felt252, registration_type: NameRegistry::RegistrationType
    );
    fn get_name(self: @TContractState, address: ContractAddress) -> felt252;
    fn get_owner(self: @TContractState) -> NameRegistry::Person;
    fn get_owner_name(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_registration_info(
        self: @TContractState, address: ContractAddress
    ) -> NameRegistry::RegistrationInfo;
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod NameRegistry {
    use core::starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{
        Map, StoragePathEntry, StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess
    };

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        names: Map::<ContractAddress, felt252>,
        owner: Person,
        registrations: Map<ContractAddress, RegistrationNode>,
        total_names: u128,
    }

    #[event]
    #[derive(Drop, starknet::Event)]
    enum Event {
        StoredName: StoredName,
    }
    #[derive(Drop, starknet::Event)]
    struct StoredName {
        #[key]
        user: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct Person {
        address: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub enum RegistrationType {
        Finite: u64,
        #[default]
        Infinite
    }

    #[starknet::storage_node]
    struct RegistrationNode {
        count: u64,
        info: RegistrationInfo,
        history: Map<u64, RegistrationInfo>,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct RegistrationInfo {
        name: felt252,
        registration_type: RegistrationType,
        registration_date: u64,
    }

    #[constructor]
    fn constructor(ref self: ContractState, owner: Person) {
        self.names.entry(owner.address).write(owner.name);
        self.total_names.write(1);
        self.owner.write(owner);
    }

    // Public functions inside an impl block
    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl NameRegistry of super::INameRegistry<ContractState> {
        fn store_name(ref self: ContractState, name: felt252, registration_type: RegistrationType) {
            let caller = get_caller_address();
            self._store_name(caller, name, registration_type);
        }

        fn get_name(self: @ContractState, address: ContractAddress) -> felt252 {
            self.names.entry(address).read()
        }

        fn get_owner(self: @ContractState) -> Person {
            self.owner.read()
        }

        fn get_owner_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.owner.name.read()
        }

        fn get_registration_info(
            self: @ContractState, address: ContractAddress
        ) -> RegistrationInfo {
            self.registrations.entry(address).info.read()
        }
    }

    // Standalone public function
    #[external(v0)]
    fn get_contract_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        'Name Registry'
    }

    // Could be a group of functions about a same topic
    #[generate_trait]
    impl InternalFunctions of InternalFunctionsTrait {
        fn _store_name(
            ref self: ContractState,
            user: ContractAddress,
            name: felt252,
            registration_type: RegistrationType
        ) {
            let total_names = self.total_names.read();

            self.names.entry(user).write(name);

            let registration_info = RegistrationInfo {
                name: name,
                registration_type: registration_type,
                registration_date: starknet::get_block_timestamp(),
            };
            let mut registration_node = self.registrations.entry(user);
            registration_node.info.write(registration_info);

            let count = registration_node.count.read();
            registration_node.history.entry(count).write(registration_info);
            registration_node.count.write(count + 1);

            self.total_names.write(total_names + 1);

            self.emit(StoredName { user: user, name: name });
        }
    }

    // Free function
    fn get_owner_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.__base_address__
    }
}

This address calculation mechanism is performed through a modelisation of the contract storage space using a concept of StoragePointers and StoragePaths that we'll now introduce.

Modeling of the Contract Storage in the Core Library

To understand how storage variables are stored in Cairo, it's important to note that they are not stored contiguously but in different locations in the contract's storage. To facilitate the retrieval of these addresses, the core library provides a model of the contract storage through a system of StoragePointers and StoragePaths.

Each storage variable can be converted to a StoragePointer. This pointer contains two main fields:

• The base address of the storage variable in the contract's storage.
• The offset, relative to the base address, of the specific storage slot being pointed to.

An example is worth a thousand words. Let's consider the Person struct defined in the previous section:

#[starknet::interface]
pub trait ISimpleStorage<TContractState> {
    fn get_owner(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Person;
    fn get_owner_name(self: @TContractState) -> felt252;
    fn get_expiration(self: @TContractState) -> SimpleStorage::Expiration;
    fn change_expiration(ref self: TContractState, expiration: SimpleStorage::Expiration);
}

#[starknet::contract]
mod SimpleStorage {
    use core::starknet::{ContractAddress, get_caller_address};
    use core::starknet::storage::{StoragePointerReadAccess, StoragePointerWriteAccess};

    #[storage]
    struct Storage {
        owner: Person,
        expiration: Expiration
    }

    #[derive(Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub struct Person {
        address: ContractAddress,
        name: felt252,
    }

    #[derive(Copy, Drop, Serde, starknet::Store)]
    pub enum Expiration {
        Finite: u64,
        #[default]
        Infinite
    }

    #[constructor]
    fn constructor(ref self: ContractState, owner: Person) {
        self.owner.write(owner);
    }

    #[abi(embed_v0)]
    impl SimpleCounterImpl of super::ISimpleStorage<ContractState> {
        fn get_owner(self: @ContractState) -> Person {
            self.owner.read()
        }

        fn get_owner_name(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
            self.owner.name.read()
        }

        fn get_expiration(self: @ContractState) -> Expiration {
            self.expiration.read()
        }

        fn change_expiration(ref self: ContractState, expiration: Expiration) {
            if get_caller_address() != self.owner.address.read() {
                panic!("Only the owner can change the expiration");
            }
            self.expiration.write(expiration);
        }
    }

    fn get_owner_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.__base_address__
    }

    fn get_owner_name_storage_address(self: @ContractState) -> felt252 {
        self.owner.name.__storage_pointer_address__.into()
    }

}

When we write let x = self.owner;, we access a variable of type StorageBase that represents the base location of the owner variable in the contract's storage. From this base address, we can either get pointers to the struct's fields (like name or address) or a pointer to the struct itself. On these pointers, we can call read and write, defined in the Store trait, to read and write the values pointed to.

Of course, all of this is transparent to the developer. We can read and write to the struct's fields as if we were accessing regular variables, but the compiler translates these accesses into the appropriate StoragePointer manipulations under the hood.

For storage mappings, the process is similar, except that we introduce an intermediate type, StoragePath. A StoragePath is a chain of storage nodes and struct fields that form a path to a specific storage slot. For example, to access a value contained in a Map<ContractAddress, u128>, the process would be the following:

1. Start at StorageBase of the Map, and convert it to a StoragePath.
2. Walk the StoragePath to reach the desired value using the entry method, which, in the case of a Map, hashes the current path with the next key to generate the next StoragePath.
3. Repeat step 2 until the StoragePath points to the desired value, converting the final value to a StoragePointer
4. Read or write the value at that pointer.

Note that we need to convert the ContractAddress to a StoragePointer before being able to read or write to it.

Summary

In this chapter, we covered the following key points:

• Storage Variables: These are used to store persistent data on the blockchain. They are defined in a special Storage struct annotated with the #[storage] attribute.
• Accessing Storage Variables: You can read and write storage variables using automatically generated read and write functions. For structs, you can access individual members directly.
• Custom Types with the Store Trait: To store custom types like structs and enums, they must implement the Store trait. This can be achieved using the #[derive(starknet::Store)] attribute or writing your own implementation.
• Addresses of Storage Variables: The address of a storage variable is computed using the sn_keccak hash of its name, and additional steps for special types. For complex types, the storage layout is determined by the type's structure.
• Structs and Enums Storage Layout: Structs are stored as a sequence of primitive types, while enums store the variant index and potential associated values.
• Storage Nodes: Special structs that can contain storage-specific types like Map or Vec. They allow for more sophisticated storage layouts and can only exist within contract storage.

Next, we'll focus on the Map and Vec types in depth.